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Vitrine | Store | Retail

application

Vitrine manifests itself in two ways in retail applications: the Object Vitrine and the Store Vitrine. Object Vitrine is a traditional, museum-style glass showcase that is used in retail interiors for displaying small and medium-sized products. On a larger scale, Store Vitrine occurs when a primarily glass façade frames unobstructed views into a store and places the shop interior itself on display.

research

Vitrine is a useful framework within which to consider the implications of retail interiors defined by transparent planes. When a store has a primarily glass façade that allows clear views into the store interior, the store itself functions as a large Vitrine. The possibility for an abstracted interpretation of Vitrine was alluded to in the study of Vitrine in museums. Intypes scholar Joori Suh explained that "through time, Vitrine came to mean not only the glass vial in which something was preserved, but a strategy for display. . . The museum itself can be understood metaphorically as a vitrine, a giant container of artifacts and exhibits." While Suh made Vitrine a metaphor for museums, many shops quite literally function as a Vitrine. Their transparent façades place the store interiors on display for passersby and frame human activity within the store for others to observe. This recurring practice of the dematerialized façade was first acknowledged in retail applications by Leah Scolere, in what she termed Thin Membrane. This study furthers consideration of Thin Membrane by analyzing it from the perspective of a Vitrine.1

Several examples from museums set additional precedents for thinking of the store as a Vitrine. In 1961, artist Timm Ulrichs exhibited himself in a Vitrine, sitting inside a human-sized glass showcase. "The vitrine's associations with both science and the Church relate to its role as bodily container, and a number of artists have exhibited living people or themselves in vitrines as part of a wider fascination with their exploration of the material self or body." Artists' consideration for the implications of placing people within vitrines allows for discussion about the role that people play when on display within Store Vitrine.  Consideration for this relationship between a person admiring an object and the potential for their action in doing so to become part of the scene is extremely relevant to Store as Vitrine.2

Nikolaus Pevnser's discussion of shops in A History of Building Types identifies some of the earliest occurrences of expansive glass façades that were likely the precursors to stores functioning as Vitrines. Technology for producing plate glass allowed for larger shop windows, beginning to appear in British storefronts in the 1830s. Pevsner describes an "uninterrupted mass of glass from the ceiling to the ground, no horizontal bars being seen" in London in 1843. His study traced the sizes of plate glass available throughout the 19th century to suggest the rough scale at which the glass would have appeared in the facades at the time. In 1828, the largest available glass was around four to five feet long. By 1850, however, sheets of as large as eight by four feet were available, becoming more commonly used by the 1860s. The capability for a relatively transparent façade was not well received at first: "Many complained that visually the plate-glass shop window resulted in the painful impression of the masonry of the upper floors being supported entirely by glass."3

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, electric lighting, atrium construction, and escalators and elevators, in addition to plate glass, all contributed to a new department store shopping experience. Department stores encouraged browsing, featuring extravagant displays in stores and in window displays that allowed "just looking", and window shopping to become socially acceptable leisure activities. This new interior and exterior browsing was reminiscent of the way in which "Walter Benjamin's flâneur of the Parisian arcades experiences the strolling, selecting, purchasing and consuming as an activity determining modern life."4 Much as the Parisian arcades facilitated a culture of leisurely strolling and purchasing, window displays encased in large sheets of glass made window shopping possible.

The use of glass for creating transparent storefronts mimicked the evolution of glass's use in the greater architectural arena. In the early 20th century, shops responded to the window shopping trend by experimenting with larger and more expansive glass-encased shop windows. Morris Lapidus cited this increased desire for window exposure: "The merchants wanted more show windows, so the store vestibules were made deeper and deeper. The planes of the show windows were arranged in a plan that could be described as zigzag, sawtooth, angled, stepped, or anything else, as long as I was able to give more windows and more space for display. The entrance doors were moved ten feet back from the street, then twenty feet, then thirty feet--there was no limit. These arcade-like storefronts, becoming increasingly popular in the United States by the 1930s, sought to maximize the surface area of window displays that were viewable from the street by recessing the store entrances and adding display space."5

Arcade-style storefronts, arguably the predecessors for completely transparent façades, gradually evolved into the truer expressions of Store Vitrine in the 1940s. Many stores began by experimenting with closed-back windows in these arcade configurations and paired them with transparent glass doors that allowed previews into the stores. Lapidus had a realization: "Myself and one or two other designers had come to the same conclusion...that there was no reason to build a wall to separate the storefront from the interiors. Why not open up the front and make the interior of the store a part of the display?...Thus, the open store front was born." Transparent storefronts reached a highpoint post-WWII. "There [had] been a trend since the end of World War II, both in remodeling and in new building, toward opening the store to full view of the sidewalk traffic...Many retailers have found that this type of window stimulates and invites the passersby to come in and look around."6

Several scholars have commented on French photographer Eugène Atget's photographs of early 20th century Parisian streetscapes as important expressions of Vitrine. James Putnam described Atget's photos of storefronts and shop windows as "[exploring] the possibility of the vitrine without the mediation of authority inherent in the museum display." Following that logic, retail institutions have become arbiters of taste, purposefully selecting and arranging objects on display as a museum curator ordinarily would; museums are no longer viewed as the only authority on material culture. Putnam also drew a parallel between museum vitrines and retail displays: "The [museum] vitrine shares with the shop window and commercial display case the power to catch the attention of the passer-by."7

The relationship between store display windows and Vitrines suggests that if a closed-back shop window display functions as a type of Vitrine, it follows that the open windows of a glass-façade allow an entire store interior to become the contents on display in a large, figurative vitrine. Thinking of the traditional shop window as a Vitrine therefore provides additional evidence for thinking about open storefronts as Vitrines.

Store as Vitrine has become a typology in storefront design that has remained relatively unchanged over the years. Many articles discussing these types of façades, from their earliest occurrences in the 1930s to the present, have described stores as intentionally being designed to function as large showcases. Storefronts have achieved ultimate openness in malls where many times there is no storefront at all, the entrance being left entirely open.8 However, the Vitrine effect is highly diminished if not eliminated when the glass is removed. The glass façade acts as a lens for viewing a store interior as contents within a container. Passersby can choose whether to observe from outside or enter and become part of the activity on display. When the glass is removed the store interior spills out into and becomes an extension of the mall or street.

While the totally open façade invites passersby to enter, a glass façade can have other behavioral implications. The glass storefront mediates the relationship a passerby has with a store, blurring the boundary between the public street and the semi-public shop interior. On one hand, the view permitted by the transparent façade invites potential customers to enter because they are able to survey the interior prior to entering.

Alternatively, the storefront can make the store seem distant in a similar effect to the unattainable nature of an object contained within a Vitrine. Architectural theorist Thomas Thiis-Evensen articulated this interplay between the interior's invitation and recession: "Things seen through [a glass wall] convey a feeling of distance...At the same time things seem very close. In a way, they are within the glass itself...This duality lends to an ephemeral air to what we see behind the glass; the glass makes whatever is inside seem to withdraw and come forward at the same time." Store Vitrine ultimately allows a beneficial glimpse into store. This view offers potential customers what has been described as "social proof." If people can see that there are others in the store, they will assume there is something desirable in the store and more likely decide to enter.9   

Vitrine has more recently been counteracted by the use of "portals" as store entrances that oftentimes obscure any view into the store. The Comme des Garçons boutique in New York's Chelsea neighborhood (1999) was an ultimate anti-vitrine.10 The façade from an old auto repair shop was left intact, a recessed door the only hint of a store within. A long, metal tunnel acted as a portal that led customers into the shop. The lack of any windows or views into the store from outside resulted in an entirely opposite effect of a vitrine, leaving the contents of the store interior a mystery, simultaneously intriguing some and intimidating others.

Many stores of the early 21st century featured hybrid storefronts that blended window displays with a transparent façade. Open-backed window displays refrained from obstructing views into store interiors, instead framing strategic views to within and creating overall compositions of window displays and store interiors. With people becoming important players in these views of the interior, Store Vitrine plays a role in the theme in architecture and interior design for watching other people, as with Intypes like Scene Seen or Naked. An element of voyeurism is introduced when shoppers become part of the contents on display, allowing passersby to observe activity within the store from a distance. Putnam describes the effect of Vitrines "almost like a peep-show," deeming the voyeuristic theme even more relevant at the Store Vitrine scale. If we reverse the perspective from looking in to projecting outwards, storefronts contribute to creating a sense of place in a city or neighborhood. "The storefronts of Main Street...[relate] to the physical fabric of our cities and towns...[and] to the mental landscape that citizens carry around with them in their heads." Especially with transparent or relatively open façades, shops truly do become part of the urban fabric, forming "an extension of the public street environment."11

Store as Vitrine | Chronological Sequence
In The Specialty Shop (A Guide), architect Jose A. Fernandez, cites the Steckler Shop as one of earliest occurrences of Store as Vitrine. "This we believe was the first ‘open front' in the United States. It is a combination arcade and ‘open face.' The dividing wall between store vestibule and interior of store proper is all glass, thus the entire shop becomes a ‘show window'...This shop has had a tremendous influence in store design. It created a new approach to the problem of merchandising. Since then, in our experience, 99% of specialty shop merchants want their stores to be as open as possible." Fernandez's discussion is indicative of the need to name the archetypical practice: "This particular design technique reaches a climax in what is generally known as the ‘open faced store front.'"12 Referring to a store as a Vitrine evokes the reiterative history of an open-faced store front.

Although Fernandez believed that Steckler was the first open-front store, Morris Lapidus believed that he, too, played an instrumental role in the early instances of transparent façades. His design for Postman's (1935) was an example of the early hybrid versions of these open storefronts that maintained arcade-style entrances, but began to incorporate unobstructed views into the store's interior. Both Postman's and Steckler maintained the popular recessed vestibule store entrance that was popular in the 1930s, lining the vestibule with closed-back window displays. The movement towards Store Vitrine was expressed in the portions of the façades where the doors were located. In both cases these walls were completely transparent, allowing unprecedented views into the stores. Martin's (c1940), also designed by Lapidus, demonstrated the clear, perspectival view allowed into the store interior thanks to an entirely glass façade.Experimentation with the notion of Store as Vitrine evolved rapidly. La Rinascente (1954) was an Italian department store that featured a simple expression of Vitrine at one of its entrances, affording view into the interior.14 Another of its entrances furthered the Store Vitrine beyond a single plane of glass to incorporate two perpendicular planes. The result was compelling, demonstrating the exaggeration of the Vitrine effect when more than one face of the exterior is sheathed in glass. The angled storefront emphasized the storefront, as its geometry was different than the remainder of the store. Its diagonal orientation was also more dynamic, almost inviting passersby to slip in off the street. Although the single transparent face would continue to be the most dominant and common expressions of Store Vitrine, further iterations of these types of multiple-sided versions were experimented with in the years to come.

In the 1950s Takashimaya (1959), a Japanese department store chain in New York City also explored the application of glass to multiple faces on the façade.15 The building itself appeared as if a small Vitrine were scaled up to life size. The interior was highly visible at night. This exposure exemplifies one of the key implications of the Store Vitrine. Such extensive transparency allowed the interior itself to act as signage and branding for the store, projecting the store's image and placing it on display for the public to see without even having to enter the store. A photograph of the store taken at night captured the high visibility into the brightly illuminated store at night.

In the 1960s Fotohuset, a Norwegian camera shop, provided an excellent example of an entirely transparent storefront that practically disappeared, dissolving the barrier between interior and exterior. The store offered an interesting pairing of both scales of Vitrine. A thirteen- by nine-foot glass vitrine acted as both a display case and sales counter.16 The vitrine spanned most of the length of the store and penetrated through the glass façade to offer a close-up display from the street. An interesting dynamic was created by the relationship between the large-scale vitrine showcasing the shop interior and the small-scale vitrine contained within it for highlighting products.

The Herman Miller Textiles and Objects Shop (1962) continued the trend of the Store Vitrine; it was published in an Architectural Record article entitled "Shop Designed Like A Display Case." By the 1960s, the idea of the store itself functioning as a showcase had become entrenched in the rhetoric describing the design of retail interiors and façades, despite the word "vitrine" not explicitly being used: "The primary effect of this shop is that of a life-size showcase...The interior is revealed to passers-by on the street through the store-wide, ceiling-high glass front."17

The design of Cambridge, Massachusetts' Design Research Building (1970) as a glass and concrete vitrine was fundamental to its mission to sell modern objects, including contemporary furniture and home accessories. "The building is a showcase, with what is and what happens inside an integral and critical part of the design." Different from a single-story Store Vitrine, when the practice was used at the building scale, a fascinating array of activities taking place on each of the floors were on view all at once. At this larger scale the contrast between the day and nighttime conditions was even more pronounced. From certain angles during the day, light and reflections on the exterior glass walls made the normally transparent walls seem opaque at times, allowing only select views into the interior. At night, however, the internally lit building glowed like a lantern, placing the store's multi-layered interior on display.18

Another contemporary furnishings store, Orthogonality (1973), similarly used Store as Vitrine as a means for showcasing its modern vignettes. One noteworthy aspect regarding the design approach of this store was the architect's acknowledgement that customers do not often look at a shop's sign above when walking down an urban street, but rather look into the store through the windows. Vitrine was therefore seen as a strategy for accommodating this tendency observed in shoppers' behavior: "What attracts the eyes of passers-by is the inside of the store and its merchandise, always brightly lit and highly visible. There is, in fact, no display window in the usual sense; instead the entire store is a display."19

Crate & Barrel (1976) featured floor-to-ceiling glass façades as a characteristic design strategy in many of its stores, including this store in Chicago.20 A contemporary photograph captured the multifunctional nature of merchandise displays when Vitrine was used. The interior product displays served the additional function of window display. The bonus, however, was in the potential for passersby to also have the ability to see other people shopping around and interacting with the displays. This element of activity could be perceived as more intriguing than a traditional, static window display.

The owner of FINI (1984), a boutique selling unique women's accessories, felt strongly about having the ability to frequently change product displays.21 From a functional standpoint, it became easier to change out displays when they were easily accessible on the sales floor, as compared to the confined space of a traditional, enclosed display window. This perspective demonstrates how Vitrine was more than a display aesthetic, but also a strategy that supported the daily tasks a shopkeeper performed in his or her work environment.

Although many of the earlier examples of Store Vitrine were characterized by completely unobstructed views into the interior, retailers began to incorporate minimal window displays that highlighted products in the storefront without entirely blocking views into the interior. 

Jerico (1989), a California clothing boutique, was one example of this modified strategy. "The façade's full 14-ft. height is essentially one giant window."22 The window display was open, however rather than being sealed off from the rest of the store in a traditional closed-back store window. This approach provided retailers with the flexibility to feature products in the window, but still framed strategic views into the shop. Although not a new practice, since Lapidus used a similar strategy for Martin's in 1947, Jerico's façade depicted the effectiveness of affixing die-cut letters to the pane of glass for signage. Especially at night, the contrast between the bright interior and dark letters enabled the store's name to be prominent.

Joan & David (1991), a shoe store in New York, demonstrated the powerful effect of applying Vitrine to a store with a long, narrow floor plan.23 The shop window framed a compelling perspectival view straight through to the back of the store. The context of the transparent façade exaggerated the perceived perspective, drawing people into the space.

Another recurring theme with Store Vitrine was the use of transparency and openness to decrease the intimidation often associated with entering high-end boutiques. Philosophy (1998), a United States flagship for an Italian ready-to-wear brand, employed Vitrine for this very reason. In Soho especially, "white-box art galleries and swank clothing shops turn their backs to the street; if you don't know they're there, then you don't belong inside (at least that seems to be the message sent by their mute street walls and intimidatingly austere interiors)...[Philosophy] puts a clever twist on the behind-closed-doors white-box aesthetic of many SoHo establishments: it is a white box completely exposed to the street, an ‘illuminated Renaissance theater."24

Amazoni (1984), a gift shop located in one of the Trump Towers in New York, sold unique art objects.25 Given its setting within a building, this small shop is one of the strongest examples of Store as Vitrine. Whereas as many applications of Store Vitrine only have one exterior wall composed glass, roughly half of this store's exterior walls were transparent. This expansive use of glass allowed the shop to literally function as a large showcase. Vitrine was also conceptually relevant in this instance since the works being sold were the types of objects that would normally be displayed vitrines. Rather than featuring the objects in individual display cases, however, they were all displayed together within one large, human-sized vitrine.

By exposing the store's interior, the element of unknown was eliminated because potential customers were able to first preview the space from the street. The very notion that people were able to enter the Vitrine that is the store causes the understanding of Vitrine to become slightly counterintuitive. On the object scale, vitrines are means of separation between object and viewer, enforcing a "look but don't touch" policy. Since people are able to penetrate the vitrine when it is used at the scale of a store, the vitrine actually encourages interaction rather than preventing it, by allowing customers to scope out a store before deciding the enter. Although many of the concepts associated with the vitrine translate from the Object Vitrine to the Store Vitrine, this particular one does not.

Another Italian ready-to-wear boutique, Cerruti (1999), reinforced the contemporary approach to balancing window displays and interior views. The clothes in the storefront were displayed horizontally on the floor with only a few small images are suspended at eye level. Clear views into the store were left unobstructed. This strategy was the most popular application of Store Vitrine in recent decades: "Most fashion stores today...opt for a ‘half-way house' where carefully harmonized window displays allow tempting views of merchandise within the store."26

Some stores still opt for a totally transparent façade that blurs the boundary between inside and outside, such as innovative clothing boutique, Oki-Ni (2001).27 The glass façade virtually disappeared, making the store feel open to the street. Captured in another nighttime photograph, the brightly lit interior was compelling in the evening. Vitrine's display of the activity within a store was well-aligned with Oki-Ni's retailing concept. The store acted as a showroom where single samples of each item were on view so customers had to place orders online. Since there were stacked felt plinths for seating and portable laptops for ordering, the showcase nature of the storefront put on display their new methodology for the future of retail.

Many stores selling larger products, like furniture, took advantage of Store as Vitrine since it enabled retailers to maximize the efficiency of their displays for both interior and exterior viewing. L.A. Eyeworks (2003), however, is an example of how Vitrine functioned for smaller products, like eyeglasses.28 The store's corner location allowed it to feature a double-sided Vitrine that convincingly gave the illusion that the store was contained within a glass showcase. Since the eyeglasses were so small relative to the space, the corner Vitrine emphasized the activity within the store rather than the product. Customers going through the process of trying on frames became the display for onlookers.

Apple's Fifth Avenue store (2006) took Store as Vitrine to an entirely new level: the store's famous glass cube was essentially an oversized Vitrine.29 The glass cube was empty, encapsulating only a small, glowing Apple logo. Instead of product, the logo, and by extension, the brand itself was glorified by the grand gesture of encasing it within an oversized Vitrine. Although the Vitrine appeared to be empty, it functioned as the entrance into the entirely below-grade store. A spiral glass staircase was contained within the cube, leading customers into the store below. The Vitrine then not only glorified the brand, but also added an element of reverence to the process of entering the store.

Into the 1960 and 1970 decades, Store as Vitrine was associated with stores that promoted themselves as modern and contemporary, (Herman Miller Textiles and Objects Shop, Design Research, Orthogonality, Crate & Barrel). Throughout its earlier occurrences, Vitrine was described in the literature as a means for turning the store itself into one large shop window. In the 1980s and 1990s, the rhetoric shifted from this more static description of a showcase, descriptions of transparent façades allowing shops to become like stages, or theaters, the activity within the stores as the show. Throughout the course of the twenty-first century, transparency was viewed as a strategy for eliminating intimidation or other barriers to entry by opting for a preview of the store over mystery. While most stores have followed the archetypical expression of using a transparent façade in order for the store to function as a showcase, Apple's Fifth Avenue store was arguably the ultimate expression of a store that is literally just a Vitrine at street level.30

end notes

  1. 1) Joori Suh, "Theory Studies: Contemporary Museum and Exhibition Spaces," (M.A. Thesis, Cornell University, 2003), 122; Leah Scolere, "Theory Studies: Contemporary Retail Design," (M.A. Thesis, Cornell University, 2004), 102-108.
  2. 2) James Putnam, Art and Artifact: The Museum as Medium (London: Thames & Hudosn, 2009), 15.
  3. 3) Nikolaus Pevsner, A History of Building Types (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976), 257, 258.
  4. 4) Sharon Zukin, Point of Purchase: How Shopping Changed American Culture (New York: Routledge, 2004), 19-20; Christoph Grunenberg, "Wonderland: Spectacles of Display from the Bon Marché to Prada," Christoph Grunenberg and Max Hollein, Shopping: A Century of Art and Consumer Culture (Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje Cantz, 2002)," 14.
  5. 5) Morris Lapidus, "Läden/Shops," Martina Düttmann and Friederike Schneider, eds., Morris Lapidus: Der Architekt des amerikanischen Traums, 28; Vassar Shop [c1930] Jose A. Fernandez, Architect; New York City in Jose A. Fernandez, The Specialty Shop (A Guide) (Cornwall, NY: Architectural Book Publishing Co., Inc., 1955),21-22; PhotoCrd: Adolph Studly.
  6. 6) Deborah Desilets, "Läden/Shops," Morris Lapidus: The Architecture of Joy (New York: Rizzoli, 2010), 32-33.
  7. 7) Boulevard de Strasbourg [1912] Eugène Atget in Ingrid Pfeiffer, "Circumstantial Evidence: Shops and Display Windows in Photographs by Eugène Atget, Berenice Abbott and Walker Evans," Christoph Grunenberg and Max Hollein, Shopping: A Century of Art and Consumer Culture (Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje Cantz, 2002), 100; PhotoCrd: Eugène Atget; Putnam, Art and Artifact, 15.
  8. 8) William R. Green, The Retail Store: Design and Construction (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1986), 61.
  9. 9) Sophie Dubuisson-Quellier, "The Shop as Market Space: The Commercial Qualities of Retail Architecture," eds. David Vernet and Leontine de Wit, Boutiques and Other Retail Spaces: The Architecture of Seduction (New York: Routledge, 2007), 32.
  10. 10) Comme des Garçons [1999] Rei Kawakubo, Future Systems, Takao Kawasaki and Studio MORSA; New York City in Abby Bussel, "The Mod Pod: Rei Kawakubo, Leading an International Team of Architects, Plays with Time and Space at the New York Comme des Garçons Store in Chelsea," Interior Design 70, no. 5 (Apr. 1999): 176-85; PhotoCrd: Todd Eberle.
  11. 11) Rodney Fitch and Lance Knobel, Retail Design (New York: Whitney Library of Design, 1990), 124; Jose A. Fernandez, The Specialty Shop (A Guide), 37; Putnam, Art and Artifact, 15; Fleming, Façade Stories, 18-19; Katharina Winkler, Shop Design + Public Interior: In.Between.Berlin (Hamburg, Germany: Junius, 2003), 7.
  12. 12) Fernandez, The Specialty Shop, 37.
  13. 13) Morris Lapidus, "Läden/Shops," 32-33; Postman's [1935] Morris Lapidus; New York City in Deborah Desilets, Morris Lapidus: The Architecture of Joy (New York: Rizzoli, 2010), 122; PhotoCrd: Morris Lapidus Archives; Martin's [c1940] Morris Lapidus; Brooklyn, NY in Jose A. Fernandez, The Specialty Shop, 51; PhotoCrd: Morris Lapidus Archives.
  14. 14) La Rinascente [1954] Carlo Pagani; Milan, Italy in Daniel Schwartzman, A.I.A., "Suburban Branch Department Stores: Architectural Record's Building Types Study Number 210," Architectural Record 115, no. 5 (May 1954): 186-87; PhotoCrd: Fortunati.
  15. 15) Takashimaya [1959] Steinhardt & Thompson and Junzo Yoshimura; New York City in Anonymous, "Japanese Retailers Invade Fifth Avenue," Architectural Record 125, no. 4 (Apr. 1959): 208-209; PhotoCrd: Louis Reens, Courtesy of Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corp.
  16. 16) FotoHuset [c1960] Sverre Fehn; Oslo, Norway in Kaspar, Shops and Showrooms, 87; PhotoCrd: Teigens Fotoatelier.
  17. 17) Herman Miller Textiles and Objects Shop [1962] Alexander Girard; New York City in James S. Hornbeck, Stores and Shopping Centers (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962), 31; PhotoCrd: Todd Webb.
  18. 18) Design Research Building [1970] Benjamin Thompson & Associates, Inc.; Cambridge, MA in Anonymous, "Bright Glass Prism on Brattle Street," Architectural Record 147, no. 5 (May 1970): 105-12; PhotoCrd: Ezra Stoller.
  19. 19) Orthogonality [1973] Brown/Steele/Bos, Inc.; Birmingham, MI in Anonymous, "Orthagonality: The Store with the Yellow Door," Architectural Record 154, no. 2 (Aug. 1973): 126-27; PhotoCrd: Greg Hursley.
  20. 20) Crate & Barrel [1976] Garufo Roberts Associates and Bonesz, Maas, Buccola; Chicago, IL in Anonymous, "Crate & Barrel: Chicago, Illinois by Garufo Roberts Associates in Association With Bonesz, Maas, Buccola," Architectural Record 159, no. 1 (Jan. 1976): 92-93; PhotoCrd: Ezra Stoller.
  21. 21) FINI [1984] Larry Rouch & Company; Seattle, WA in D.B., "Recherché," Architectural Record: Record Interiors 172, no. 9 (Mid-Sept. 1984): 144-45; PhotoCrd: Dick Busher.
  22. 22) Jerico [1989] Farrell Design Associates; Santa Monica, CA in Jerry Cooper, "Jerico: Farrell Design Associates Creates a Bold Boutique on Santa Monica's Main Street," Interior Design 60, no. 6 (Apr. 1989): 212-15; PhotoCrd: Toshi Yoshimi.
  23. 23) Joan & David [1991] Eva Jiricna; New York City in Edie Lee Cohen, "Joan & David: Eva Jiricna's Shop Is Another Stylish Asset to the Now-Chic Flatiron District," Interior Design 62, no. 12 (Sep. 1991): 186-89; PhotoCrd: Peter Paige.
  24. 24) Philosophy [1998] David Ling Architects; New York City in Abby Dussel, "Extreme Theater: David Ling Architects Produces a Bravura Performance for Alberta Ferretti's U.S. Flagship Store, Philosophy," Interior Design 69, no. 12 (Oct. 1998): 142-49; PhotoCrd: Todd Eberle.
  25. 25) Amazoni [1984] Ziva S. Gruber; New York City in E.C., "Trump Tower I: Amazoni," Interior Design 55, no. 9 (Sept. 1984): 250-51; PhotoCrd: Peter Aaron, ESTO.
  26. 26) Cerruti [1999] Antonio Citterio; New York City in Edie Cohen, "Certo Cerruti: Antonio Citterio Makes His American Fashion Debut with a Madison Avenue Flagship Store Designed for the Venerable Italian House of Cerruti," Interior Design 70, no. 11 (Sept. 1999): 214-19; PhotoCrd: Michael Moran; Fitch, Retail Design, 124.
  27. 27) Oki-Ni [2001] 6A Architects; London, England in Corinna Dean, The Inspired Retail Space: Attract Customers, Build Branding, Increase Volume (Gloucester, MA: Rockport, 2003), 144; PhotoCrd: David Grandorge/Courtesy of 6A Architects.
  28. 28) L.A. Eyeworks [2003] Neil M. Denari; Los Angeles, CA in Edie Cohen, "Look Out!: Architecture, Art and Branding Converge at the Corner Location of L.A. Eyeworks, a Neil M. Denari Design," Interior Design 74, no. 3 (Mar. 2003): 184-89; PhotoCrd: Benny Chan/Fotoworks.
  29. 29) Apple Store [2006] Bohlin Cywinski Jackson; New York City in John Gendall, "Business Week/Architectural Record Awards Winner: Apple Store Fifth Avenue, Bohlin Cywinski Jackson," Architectural Record 194, no. 11 (Nov. 2006): 86-89; PhotoCrd: Peter Aaron.
  30. 30) Evidence for the archetypical use and the chronological sequence of Vitrine as Store in retail design was developed from the following primary sources: 1910 Boulevard de Strasbourg [1912] Eugène Atget in Ingrid Pfeiffer, "Circumstantial Evidence: Shops and Display Windows in Photographs by Eugène Atget, Berenice Abbott and Walker Evans," Christoph Grunenberg and Max Hollein, Shopping: A Century of Art and Consumer Culture (Ostfildern-Ruit: Hatje Cantz, 2002), 100; PhotoCrd: Eugène Atget / 1930 Vassar Shop [c1930] Jose A. Fernandez, Architect; New York City in Jose A. Fernandez, The Specialty Shop (A Guide) (Cornwall, NY: Architectural Book Publishing Co., Inc., 1955),21-22; PhotoCrd: Adolph Studly / 1940 Martin's [c1940] Morris Lapidus; Brooklyn, NY in Jose A. Fernandez, The Specialty Shop, 51; PhotoCrd: Morris Lapidus Archives / 1950 La Rinascente [1954] Carlo Pagani; Milan, Italy in Daniel Schwartzman, A.I.A., "Suburban Branch Department Stores: Architectural Record's Building Types Study Number 210," Architectural Record 115, no. 5 (May 1954): 186-87; PhotoCrd: Fortunati; Takashimaya [1959] Steinhardt & Thompson and Junzo Yoshimura; New York City in Anonymous, "Japanese Retailers Invade Fifth Avenue," Architectural Record 125, no. 4 (Apr. 1959): 208-209; PhotoCrd: Louis Reens, Courtesy of Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corp. / 1960 FotoHuset [c1960] Sverre Fehn; Oslo, Norway in Kaspar, Shops and Showrooms, 87; PhotoCrd: Teigens Fotoatelier; Herman Miller Textiles and Objects Shop [1962] Alexander Girard; New York City in James S. Hornbeck, Stores and Shopping Centers (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962), 31; PhotoCrd: Todd Webb / 1970 Design Research Building [1970] Benjamin Thompson & Associates, Inc.; Cambridge, MA in Anonymous, "Bright Glass Prism on Brattle Street," Architectural Record 147, no. 5 (May 1970): 105-12; PhotoCrd: Ezra Stoller; Orthogonality [1973] Brown/Steele/Bos, Inc.; Birmingham, MI in Anonymous, "Orthagonality: The Store with the Yellow Door," Architectural Record 154, no. 2 (Aug. 1973): 126-27; PhotoCrd: Greg Hursley; Crate & Barrel [1976] Garufo Roberts Associates and Bonesz, Maas, Buccola; Chicago, IL in Anonymous, "Crate & Barrel: Chicago, Illinois by Garufo Roberts Associates in Association With Bonesz, Maas, Buccola," Architectural Record 159, no. 1 (Jan. 1976): 92-93; PhotoCrd: Ezra Stoller / 1980 Amazoni [1984] Ziva S. Gruber; New York City in E.C., "Trump Tower I: Amazoni," Interior Design 55, no. 9 (Sept. 1984): 250-51; PhotoCrd: Peter Aaron, ESTO; FINI [1984] Larry Rouch & Company; Seattle, WA in D.B., "Recherché," Architectural Record: Record Interiors 172, no. 9 (Mid-Sept. 1984): 144-45; PhotoCrd: Dick Busher; Jerico [1989] Farrell Design Associates; Santa Monica, CA in Jerry Cooper, "Jerico: Farrell Design Associates Creates a Bold Boutique on Santa Monica's Main Street," Interior Design 60, no. 6 (Apr. 1989): 212-15; PhotoCrd: Toshi Yoshimi / 1990 Joan & David [1991] Eva Jiricna; New York City in Edie Lee Cohen, "Joan & David: Eva Jiricna's Shop Is Another Stylish Asset to the Now-Chic Flatiron District," Interior Design 62, no. 12 (Sep. 1991): 186-89; PhotoCrd: Peter Paige; Philosophy [1998] David Ling Architects; New York City in Abby Dussel, "Extreme Theater: David Ling Architects Produces a Bravura Performance for Alberta Ferretti's U.S. Flagship Store, Philosophy," Interior Design 69, no. 12 (Oct. 1998): 142-49; PhotoCrd: Todd Eberle; Comme des Garçons [1999] Rei Kawakubo, Future Systems, Takao Kawasaki and Studio MORSA; New York City in Abby Bussel, "The Mod Pod: Rei Kawakubo, Leading an International Team of Architects, Plays with Time and Space at the New York Comme des Garçons Store in Chelsea," Interior Design 70, no. 5 (Apr. 1999): 176-85; PhotoCrd: Todd Eberle; Cerruti [1999] Antonio Citterio; New York City in Edie Cohen, "Certo Cerruti: Antonio Citterio Makes His American Fashion Debut with a Madison Avenue Flagship Store Designed for the Venerable Italian House of Cerruti," Interior Design 70, no. 11 (Sept. 1999): 214-19; PhotoCrd: Michael Moran; Fitch, Retail Design, 124 / 2000 Oki-Ni [2001] 6A Architects; London, England in Corinna Dean, The Inspired Retail Space: Attract Customers, Build Branding, Increase Volume (Gloucester, MA: Rockport, 2003), 144; PhotoCrd: David Grandorge/Courtesy of 6A Architects; L.A. Eyeworks [2003] Neil M. Denari; Los Angeles, CA in Edie Cohen, "Look Out!: Architecture, Art and Branding Converge at the Corner Location of L.A. Eyeworks, a Neil M. Denari Design," Interior Design 74, no. 3 (Mar. 2003): 184-89; PhotoCrd: Benny Chan/Fotoworks; Apple Store [2006] Bohlin Cywinski Jackson; New York City in John Gendall, "Business Week/Architectural Record Awards Winner: Apple Store Fifth Avenue, Bohlin Cywinski Jackson," Architectural Record 194, no. 11 (Nov. 2006): 86-89; PhotoCrd: Peter Aaron.

bibliographic citations

1) The Interior Archetypes Research and Teaching Project, Cornell University, www.intypes.cornell.edu (accessed month & date, year).

2) Malyak, Kristin. Vitrine, "Theory Studies: Archetypical Retail Practices in Contemporary Interior Design," M.A. Thesis, Cornell University, 2011, 232-95.